history of education
Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. In pre-
literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their
knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the
Middle Kingdom.
[4]
Plato founded the
Academy in
Athens, the first institution of higher learning in
Europe.
[5] The city o
f Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. There, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476.[6]
In
China,
Confucius (551-479 ACE), of the
State of Lu, was the country's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbors like Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Confucius gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his
Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era.
[citation needed]
After the
Fall of Rome, the
Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established
cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into
medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities.
[6] During the High Middle Ages,
Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential
Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including
Thomas Aquinas of the
University of Naples,
Robert Grosseteste of the
University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation,
[7] and Saint
Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research.
[8] Founded in 1088, the
University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.
[9]
The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a
new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450,
Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilisations — as with the
Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating works from Europe like
Euclid's Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of
Confucius for European audiences.
The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe.
In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or
otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth,
UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.
[10]
Formal education
Formal education occurs in a
structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a
school environment with
classroomsof multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system. Such choices include curriculum,
organizational models, design of the physical
learning spaces (e.g. classrooms), student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more.
[11][12]
Preschool
Preschools provide education from ages approximately three to seven, depending on the country, when children enter
primary education. These are also known as
nursery schools and as
kindergarten, except in the US, where kindergarten is a term used for primary education.
[citation needed] Kindergarten "provide[s] a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them."
[13]
Primary
Primary school students with their teacher,
Colombia, 2014
Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first five to seven years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six to eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of children aged six to twelve are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.
[14] Under the
Education For All programs driven by
UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory. The division between primary and
secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate
middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as
primary schools or
elementary schools. Primary schools are often subdivided into
infant schools and
junior school.
Secondary
Students working with a teacher at Albany Senior High School,
New Zealand
Chilean high school students during a class photograph, 2002
In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during
adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive
primary education for
minors, to the optional, selective
tertiary, "postsecondary", or "
higher" education (e.g.
university, vocational school) for
adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or
high schools,
gymnasiums,
lyceums, middle schools,
colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and
Australia, primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as
K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give
common knowledge, to prepare for
higher education, or to train directly in a
profession.
Secondary education in the United States did not emerge until 1910, with the rise of large corporations and advancing technology in factories, which required
skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand,
high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for
white collar or skilled
blue collar work. This proved beneficial for both employers and employees, since the improved human capital lowered costs for the employer, while skilled employees received a higher wages.
Secondary education has a longer history in Europe, where grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of
public schools,
fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves date even further back.
Community colleges offer another option at this transitional stage of education. They provide nonresidential junior college courses to people living in a particular area.
Tertiary (higher)
Higher education typically involves work towards a degree-level or
foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national
economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.
Vocational
Special
In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were repeatedly denied an education by
physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like
Itard,
Seguin,
Howe,
Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. In its early years, special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.
[18]
Other educational forms
Alternative
While considered "alternative" today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system.
Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of
traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including
alternative schools,
self learning,
homeschooling and
unschooling. Example
alternative schools include
Montessori schools,
Waldorf schools (or
Steiner schools),
Friends schools,
Sands School,
Summerhill School,
Walden's Path,
The Peepal Grove School,
Sudbury Valley School,
Krishnamurti schools, and
open classroom schools.
Charter schools are another example of alternative education, which have in the recent years grown in numbers in the US and gained greater importance in its public education system.
[19][20]
Indigenous
Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students."
[21]
Informal learning
Informal learning usually takes place outside educational
establishments, does not follow a specified
curriculum and may originate accidentally, sporadically, in association with certain occasions, from changing
practical requirements. It is not necessarily planned to be
pedagogically conscious, systematic and according to
subjects, but rather unconsciously incidental,
holistically problem-related, and related to situation
management and fitness for
life. It is experienced directly in its "
natural" function of everyday life and is often spontaneous.
The concept of 'education through recreation' was applied to childhood development in the 19th century.
[22] In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities.
[23] L.P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, described education through recreation: "
A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well."
[24] Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of life's activities.
[25] The concept has been revived by the
University of Western Ontario to teach
anatomy to medical students.
[25]
Self-directed learning
Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a contemplative, absorbing process, of "learning on your own" or "by yourself", or as a self-teacher. Some
autodidacts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. While some may have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas.
Notable autodidacts include
Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president),
Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician),
Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist),
Charles Darwin (naturalist),
Thomas Alva Edison (inventor),
Tadao Ando (architect),
George Bernard Shaw (playwright),
Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and
Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician).
Open education and electronic technology
In 2012, the modern use of electronic
educational technology (also called e-learning) had grown at 14 times the rate of traditional learning.
[clarification needed][26] Open education is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its efficiency and results compared to traditional methods.
[27] Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Online courses often can be more expensive than face-to-face classes. Out of 182 colleges surveyed in 2009 nearly half said tuition for online courses was higher than for campus based ones.
[28] Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form
edX. Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U. Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, and Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press.
[29] Despite favorable studies on effectiveness, many people may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons.
[30]
The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the
Open University in the
United Kingdom. Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal "
academic value" to traditional degrees.
[31] Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials.
[32] A culture is beginning to form around distance learning for people who are looking to social connections enjoyed on traditional campuses. For example, students may create
study groups,
meetups and movements such as
UnCollege.
Development goals
Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in
Europe.
[when?] (Chart does not include population statistics.)
Since 1909, the ratio of children in the developing world attending school has increased. Before then, a small minority of boys attended school. By the start of the 21st century, the majority of all children in most regions of the world attended school.
Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international
Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain.
[33] Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the
Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue.
[33] Additionally,
Transparency International has identified
corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa.
[34] Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the ongoing costs involved. There is also economic pressure from some parents, who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education.
[citation needed]
A study conducted by the
UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole.
[35] Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principles:
- national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention;
- strategies must be context relevant and context specific;[clarification needed]
- plans should employ an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in steps;[clarification needed]
- partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements;
- outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels;
- a certain percentage of students should be removed for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade).
Internationalization
Similarities — in systems or even in ideas — that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-
ErasmusProgram
[36] facilitates exchanges across European universities. The
Soros Foundation[37] provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the
International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The
global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes.
Education and technology in developing countries
The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in
Haiti
Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and
developing countries. Charities like
One Laptop per Child are dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials.
Private vs public funding in developing countries
Research into LCPS (low cost private schools) found that over 5 years to July 2013, debate around LCPSs to achieving
Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarised and finding growing coverage in international policy.
[41] The polarisation was due to disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reach disadvantaged groups, provide quality education, support or undermine equality, and are financially sustainable. The report examined the main challenges encountered by development organisations which support LCPSs.
[41] Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia. This success is attributed to excess demand. These surveys found concern for:
- Equity: This concern is widely found in the literature, suggesting the growth in low-cost private schooling may be exacerbating or perpetuating already existing inequalities in developing countries, between urban and rural populations, lower- and higher-income families, and between girls and boys. The report findings suggest that girls may be underrepresented and that LCPS are reaching low-income families in smaller numbers than higher-income families.
- Quality and educational outcomes: It is difficult to generalize about the quality of private schools. While most achieve better results than government counterparts, even after their social background is taken into account, some studies find the opposite. Quality in terms of levels of teacher absence, teaching activity, and pupil to teacher ratios in some countries are better in LCPSs than in government schools.
- Choice and affordability for the poor: Parents can choose private schools because of perceptions of better-quality teaching and facilities, and an English language instruction preference. Nevertheless, the concept of 'choice' does not apply in all contexts, or to all groups in society, partly because of limited affordability (which excludes most of the poorest) and other forms of exclusion, related to caste or social status.
- Cost-effectiveness and financial sustainability: There is evidence that private schools operate at low cost by keeping teacher salaries low, and their financial situation may be precarious where they are reliant on fees from low-income households.
The report showed some cases of successful voucher and subsidy programmes; evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread.
[41] Addressing regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge. Emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPS, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government, and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor.
Educational theory
A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased
high schoolgraduation rates of students from
low income families.
[42]
Purpose of schools
Individual purposes for pursuing education can vary. Understanding the goals and means of educational
socialization processes may also differ according to the
sociological paradigm used.
The early years of schooling generally focus around developing basic
interpersonal communication and
literacy skills. This lays a foundation for more complex skills and subjects. Later, education usually turns toward gaining the knowledge and skills needed to create value and establish a
livelihood.
[43]
People also pursue education for its own sake to satisfy innate curiosity, out of interest in a specific subject or skill, or for overall
personal development.
[44]
Education is often understood as a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality, and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Education is also often perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentials,
[45] with the purpose of developing every individual to their full potential.
Some claim that there is education inequality because children did not exceed the education of their parents.
[46] This education inequality is then associated with income inequality. Although critical thinking is a goal of education, criticism and blame are often the unintended by products of our current educational process. Students often blame their teachers and their textbooks, despite the availability of libraries and the internet. When someone tries to improve education, the educational establishment itself occasionally showers the person with criticism rather than gratitude.
[47] Better by products of an educational system would be gratitude and determination.
Developed countries have people with more resources (housing, food, transportation, water and sewage treatment, hospitals, health care, libraries, books, media, schools, the internet, education, etc.) than most of the world's population. One merely needs to see through travel or the media how many people in the undeveloped countries live to sense this. However, one can also use economic data to gain some insight into this. Yet criticism and blame are common among people in the developed countries.
Gratitude for all these resources and the determination to develop oneself would be more productive than criticism and blame because the resources are readily available and because, if you blame others, there is no need for you to do something different tomorrow or for you to change and improve. Where there is a will, there is a way. People in developed countries have the will and the way to do many things that they want to do. They sometimes need more determination and will to improve and to educate themselves with the resources that are abundantly available. They occasionally need more gratitude for the resources they have, including their teachers and their textbooks. The entire internet is also available to supplement these teachers and textbooks.
Educational psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the
social psychology of
schools as
organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as
educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as
school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as
gifted children and those with specific
disabilities.
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by
psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between
medicine and
biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including
instructional design,
educational technology, curriculum development,
organizational learning,
special education and
classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to
cognitive science and the
learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
The intelligence–education relationship
Intelligence is an important factor in how the individual responds to education. Those who have higher intelligence tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education.
[48] This effect is also observable in the opposite direction, in that education increases measurable intelligence.
[49] Studies have shown that while educational attainment is important in predicting intelligence in later life, intelligence at 53 is more closely correlated to intelligence at 8 years old than to educational attainment.
[50]
Learning modalities
There has been much interest in learning modalities and styles over the last two decades. The most commonly employed learning modalities are:
[51]
- Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
- Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
- Kinesthetic: learning based on movement, e.g. hands-on work and engaging in activities.
Some theories propose that all individuals benefit from a variety of learning modalities, while others suggest that individuals may have preferred learning styles, learning more easily through visual or kinesthetic experiences.
[57] A consequence of the latter theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.
[58] Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that
learning stylessuch as Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic(VAK) are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning.
[59][60] Recent research has argued "there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."
[61]
Philosophy
As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its problems (...) its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of
philosophy".
[62] "The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline."
[63] As such, it is both part of the field of education and a field of
applied philosophy, drawing from fields of
metaphysics,
epistemology,
axiology and the philosophical approaches (
speculative, prescriptive, and/or
analytic) to address questions in and about
pedagogy,
education policy, and
curriculum, as well as the process of
learning, to name a few.
[64] For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between
education theory and practice.
Curriculum
In formal education, a
curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a
school or
university. As an idea,
curriculum stems from the
Latin word for
race course, referring to the course of
deeds and experiences through which
children grow to become mature
adults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general
syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.
Educational institutions may incorporate
fine arts as part of K-12 grade curricula or within majors at
colleges and universities as electives. The various types of fine arts are music, dance, and theater.
[66]
Instruction
Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are often called
teachers, and they direct the education of
students and might draw on many
subjects like
reading,
writing,
mathematics,
science and
history. Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called
teachers, instructors, or
professors, depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.
[67][68] With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified. A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of teachers (SETS), but these evaluations have been criticized for being counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias.
[69]
Economics of education
It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of
economic growth.
[70]Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However,
technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "
human capital". Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions
[71] and the role of cognitive skills.
[72]
At the level of the individual, there is a large literature, generally related to the work of
Jacob Mincer,
[73] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling.
[74][75] Some students who have indicated a high potential for learning, by testing with a high
intelligence quotient, may not achieve their full academic potential, due to financial difficulties.
[citation needed]
Economists
Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the
egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production.
[76]
See also
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